Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Digital Literacy, Sustainable Development and Radiation Regulation: Policy and Information Systems Implications

  • Published:
Information Systems Frontiers Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper explores the convergence of development economics, regulatory policies, and public health considerations within the field of Information Systems (IS) research, focusing specifically on 5G and 6G mobile technologies. Despite the widespread deployment of these technologies and their potential health implications, there is a limited understanding in IS literature on why countries adopt varying thresholds for radiation regulation. Our study, analyzing data from 124 countries, uncovered an inverted U-shaped relationship between digital literacy and the rigidity of radiation regulation. This finding reveals that nations with lower digital literacy levels tend to enforce stricter regulations, whereas those with higher literacy levels adopt more relaxed policies. By highlighting how digital literacy, a critical aspect of the digital divide, significantly influences regulatory frameworks in telecommunications, this study contributes to filling the gap in IS research. This underscores the necessity of informed and transparent regulatory decision making, especially in countries with diverse levels of digital literacy. Calling for a multidisciplinary approach to policy formulation, our work enriches the broader discourse in IS research, underlining the pivotal role of digital literacy in shaping both the access and regulatory landscapes of emerging technologies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

The data underlying this paper are available in the paper, as well as all data sources. The dataset constructed for this paper contains observations of a sample of 97 countries worldwide that apply the international mobile station exposure limits (ICNIRP, 2020 or ICNIRP, 1998) or the US national mobile network limits (FCC, 1996), and another sample of 27 countries worldwide that apply restrictive mobile station exposure limits, for which there is sufficient data on the determinants of interest (see Table 1 in the main text). Table 6 (see appendices) lists the 124 countries selected for the study according to the type of EMF legislation (standard exposure limits, restrictive exposure limits) and following the World Bank regional classification. These data are based on the authors’ elaborations building on ITU (2021) surveys, GSMA (2022), and Chiaraviglio et al. (2022) datasets. Table 7 (see appendices) lists the 59 countries that have 5G among those countries in the whole dataset in Table 6 (see appendices). Within this 5G dataset, there were 45 countries with standard exposure limits and 14 countries with restrictive exposure limits. For the proxies of the determinants of EMF legislation, data were collected according to the main hypothesis considered in this paper, namely, digital literacy (see Table 1 in the main text), and some control variables regrouped under the label others (controls) and some instruments were added. Table 8 (see appendices) lists the data content and sources.

Notes

  1. https://www.ft.com/content/8eee1ecd-59ef-474a-8d7f-909da735063a

  2. https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/pay-people-to-get-pylons-up-faster-says-key-uk-report/2-1-1496497

  3. https://sdgs.un.org/goals

  4. https://www.broadbandcommission.org

  5. https://www.icnirp.org

  6. Probit and Logit models perform similarly independently of the sample size, the correlation structure, and the root mean square error (Jose et al., 2020).

  7. Probit models facilitate the analysis of the effect of changes in the values of explanatory variables on probability estimates. With OLS models, the estimated parameters are constant for all values of the explanatory regressor. Furthermore, under Probit models the probability estimates fall in the 0–1 range and result in smaller Type I errors, i.e., probabilities of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true, than OLS models (Stone and Rasp, 1991).

  8. The error term \({\varepsilon }_{i}\) is heteroskedastic and nominal significance levels associated with the test statistics may not be reliable. See McFadden (1972) for a more detailed discussion.

  9. This sample size with a dichotomous dependent variable is common in accounting studies.

  10. Data from GSMA and Chiaraviglio et al. (2022) differ on the country coverage. There are divergent values between those sources for Bulgaria and Iraq and the latter has been excluded from the datasets used in this paper.

  11. Decentralization data in this paper are based on Ivanyna and Shah (2012) given their country coverage.

  12. These figures are available from the authors upon request.

  13. Estimations were done with Stata.

  14. In general terms, children may be more exposed to radiation than adults because of their morphology and anatomy, a moderate use of mobile phones is recommended prioritizing the use of hand-free kits to avoid the proximity with the head (ANSES, 2016).

References

  • Abdelfattah, B. M., Bagchi, K., Udo, G., & Kirs, P. (2010). Understanding the internet digital divide: An exploratory multi-nation individual-level analysis. In AMCIS 2010 proceedings (p. 542) https://aisel.aisnet.org/amcis2010/542

  • Agence Nationale de Fréquences (ANFR). (2019). International technical workshop on 5G and EMF exposure for administrations. April 17th, 2019, ANFR, Maisons-Alfort, France. https://www.anfr.fr/fileadmin/mediatheque/documents/expace/workshop-5G/20190417-international-workshop-5Gexposure.pdf

  • Agence Nationale Sécurité Sanitaire Alimentaire Nationale (ANSES). (2016). Exposition aux radiofréquences et santé des enfants. Avis de l’ANSES. Rapport d’expertise collective. https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/AP2012SA0091Ra.pdf

  • Agence Nationale Sécurité Sanitaire Alimentaire Nationale (ANSES). (2022). Exposition aux champs électromagnétiques liée au déploiement de la technologie 5G. Avis actualisé de ANSES. Rapport d’expertise collective. https://anses.hal.science/anses-03792878

  • Aissaoui, N. (2022). The digital divide: A literature review and some directions for future research in light of COVID-19. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication, 71(8/9), 686–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alam, K., & Imran, S. (2015). The digital divide and social inclusion among refugee migrants: A case in regional Australia. Information Technology & People, 28(2), 344–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albizri, A. (2020). Theory-based taxonomy of feedback application design for electricity conservation: A user-centric approach. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 46(1), 16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, D., Karanasios, S., & Slavova, M. (2011). Working with activity theory: Context, technology, and information behavior. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 62(4), 776–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anthonysamy, L. (2020). Digital literacy deficiencies in digital learning among undergraduates. In Understanding digital industry : Proceedings of the conference on managing digital industry, technology and entrepreneurship (CoMDITE 2019), July 10-11, 2019.

  • Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). (2021). A report to government on the adequacy of digital platforms’ disinformation and news quality measures. ACMA report. Melbourne: ACMA Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baghdadi, Y., Harfouche, A., & Musso, M. (2020). ICT for an Inclusive World. Springer International Publishing. (Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bandara, P., & Carpenter, D. O. (2018). Planetary electromagnetic pollution: It is time to assess its impact. The Lancet Planetary Health, 2(12), e512–e514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barua, S. (2020). Financing sustainable development goals: A review of challenges and mitigation strategies. Business Strategy & Development, 3(3), 277–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barzilai-Nahon, K. (2006). Gaps and bits: Conceptualizing measurements for digital divide/s. The Information Society, 22(5), 269–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bashi, M. H., De Tommasi, L., Le Cam, A., Relaño, L. S., Lyons, P., Mundó, J., … & Stancioff, C. E. (2023). A review and mapping exercise of energy community regulatory challenges in European member states based on a survey of collective energy actors. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 172, 113055.

  • Basilotta-Gómez-Pablos, V., Matarranz, M., Casado-Aranda, L. A., & Otto, A. (2022). Teachers’ digital competencies in higher education: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaunoyer, E., Dupéré, S., & Guitton, M. J. (2020). COVID-19 and digital inequalities: Reciprocal impacts and mitigation strategies. Computers in Human Behavior, 111, 106424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burtch, G., & Chan, J. (2019). Investigating the relationship between medical crowdfunding and personal bankruptcy in the United States: Evidence of a digital divide. MIS Quarterly, 43(1), 237–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabello-Hutt, T., Cabello, P., & Claro, M. (2018). Online opportunities and risks for children and adolescents: The role of digital skills, age, gender and parental mediation in Brazil. New Media & Society, 20(7), 2411–2431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calderon Gomez, D. (2021). The third digital divide and Bourdieu: Bidirectional conversion of economic, cultural, and social capital to (and from) digital capital among young people in Madrid. New Media & Society, 23(9), 2534–2553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cetindamar Kozanoglu, D., & Abedin, B. (2021). Understanding the role of employees in digital transformation: Conceptualization of digital literacy of employees as a multi-dimensional organizational affordance. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 34(6), 1649–1672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, B. S., Churchill, D., & Chiu, T. K. (2017). Digital literacy learning in higher education through digital storytelling approach. Journal of International Education Research (JIER), 13(1), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, S. I., Yen, D. C., Chang, I. C., & Chou, J. C. (2012). Study of the digital divide evaluation model for government agencies–a Taiwanese local government’s perspective. Information Systems Frontiers, 14, 693–709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chetty, K., Qigui, L., Gcora, N., Josie, J., Wenwei, L., & Fang, C. (2018). Bridging the digital divide: Measuring digital literacy. Economics, 12(1), 20180023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiaraviglio, L., Lodovisi, C., Franci, D., Pavoncello, S., Merli, E., Aureli, T., … & Alouini, M. S. (2022). EMF exposure in 5G standalone mm-Wave deployments: What is the impact of downlink traffic?. IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society, 3, 1445–1465.

  • Chin, A. G., Harris, M. A., & Brookshire, R. (2022). An empirical investigation of intent to adopt mobile payment systems using a trust-based extended valence framework. Information Systems Frontiers, 24(1), 329–347.

  • Choudrie, J., Junior, C. O., McKenna, B., & Richter, S. (2018). Understanding and conceptualising the adoption, use and diffusion of mobile banking in older adults: A research agenda and conceptual framework. Journal of Business Research, 88, 449–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coiro, J. (2021). Toward a multifaceted heuristic of digital reading to inform assessment, research, practice, and policy. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(1), 9–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cousin, M. E., & Siegrist, M. (2008). Laypeople’s health concerns and health beliefs in regard to risk perception of mobile communication. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 14(6), 1235–1249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalampira, E. S., & Nastis, S. A. (2020). Back to the future: Simplifying Sustainable Development Goals based on three pillars of sustainability. International Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Management and Informatics, 6(3), 226–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dell’Anna, F. (2021). Green jobs and energy efficiency as strategies for economic growth and the reduction of environmental impacts. Energy Policy, 149, 112031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLone, W. H., & McLean, E. R. (2003). The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success: A ten-year update. Journal of Management Information Systems, 19(4), 9–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demortain, D. (2021). La couverture médiatique du problème de la 5G en France. Une analyse quantitative, Rapport de recherche, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Sciences Innovations Sociétés, LISIS.

  • Dennehy, D., Fitzgibbon, M., & Carton, F. (2014). International development: Exploring the gap between organisations’ development policy and practice—a Southern perspective. AI & Society, 29, 221–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennehy, D., Pappas, I. O., Wamba, S. F., & Michael, K. (2021). Guest editorial. Information Technology & People, 34(6), 1541–1550.

  • Département Fédéral de l’Environnement, des Transports, de l’Energie et de la Communication Suisse (DETEC) (2019). Téléphonie mobile et rayonnement. Rapport publié par le groupe de travail Téléphonie mobile et rayonnement sur mandat du DETEC, 18 novembre 2019, https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/bafu/fr/dokumente/elektrosmog/fachinfo-daten/bericht-mobilfunk-und-strahlung.pdf.download.pdf/Rapport_TelephonieMobile-Rayonnement.pdf

  • Deruyck, M., Castellanos, G., Wout, J., Martens, L. Kuehn, S., & Kuster, N. (2021). Final Report of Project CRR-954 Assessment of varied mobile network topologies on human exposure, mobile communication quality and sustainability. Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society.

  • De Wet, C. (2014). Trends in digital pedagogies: Implications for South African universities expanding through hybrid online education. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(23), 859–867.

  • Dhungel, A., Zmirou-Navier, D., & Van Deventer, E. (2015). Risk management policies and practices regarding radio frequency electromagnetic fields: Results from a WHO survey. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 164(1–2), 22–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diaz Andrade, A., & Techatassanasoontorn, A. A. (2021). Digital enforcement: Rethinking the pursuit of a digitally-enabled society. Information Systems Journal, 31(1), 184–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Celeste, C., & Shafer, S. (2004). Digital inequality: From unequal access to differentiated use. In K. Neckerman (Ed.), Social Inequality (pp. 355–400). Russell Sage Foundation.

  • Dwivedi, Y. K., Hughes, L., Kar, A. K., Baabdullah, A. M., Grover, P., Abbas, R., … & Wade, M. (2022). Climate change and COP26: Are digital technologies and information management part of the problem or the solution? An editorial reflection and call to action. International Journal of Information Management, 63, 102456.

  • Elavarasan, R. M., Shafiullah, G. M., Padmanaban, S., Kumar, N. M., Annam, A., Vetrichelvan, A. M., … & Holm-Nielsen, J. B. (2020). A comprehensive review on renewable energy development, challenges, and policies of leading Indian states with an international perspective. Ieee Access, 8, 74432–74457.

  • Elena-Bucea, A., Cruz-Jesus, F., Oliveira, T., & Coelho, P. S. (2021). Assessing the role of age, education, gender and income on the digital divide: Evidence for the European Union. Information Systems Frontiers, 23, 1007–1021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elzanaty, A., Chiaraviglio, L., & Alouini, M. S. (2021). 5G and EMF exposure: Misinformation, open questions, and potential solutions. Frontiers in Communications and Networks, 2, 635716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ertl, B., Csanadi, A., & Tarnai, C. (2020). Getting closer to the digital divide: An analysis of impacts on digital competencies based on the German PIAAC sample. International Journal of Educational Development, 78, 102259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eyman, D. (2020). Digital literac (ies), digital discourses, and communities of practice: literacy practices in virtual environments. In Cultural Practices of Literacy (pp. 181–195). Routledge.

  • Farias-Gaytan, S., Aguaded, I., & Ramirez-Montoya, M. S. (2023). Digital transformation and digital literacy in the context of complexity within higher education institutions: A systematic literature review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Communications Commission (FCC). (1996). Guidelines for evaluating the environmental effects of radiofrequency radiation. In 47 CFR Parts 1, 2, 15, 24 and 97, FCC, editor. 1996: Federal Register. https://www.fcc.gov/document/guidelines-evaluating-environmental-effects-radiofrequency

  • Ferrari, A., Punie, Y., & Brecko, B. (Eds.). (2013). DIGCOMP: A framework for developing and understanding digital competence in Europe. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2788/52966

  • Fosso Wamba, S., & Queiroz, M. M. (2023). Responsible artificial intelligence as a secret ingredient for digital health: Bibliometric analysis, insights, and research directions. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(6), 2123–2138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, G., & Connolly, R. (2018). Mobile health technology adoption across generations: Narrowing the digital divide. Information Systems Journal, 28(6), 995–1019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franque, F. B., Oliveira, T., & Tam, C. (2023). Continuance intention of mobile payment: TTF model with Trust in an African context. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(2), 775–793.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey, R. (2021). Psychological drivers of individual differences in risk perception: A systematic case study focusing on 5G. Psychological Science, 32(10), 1592–1604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gasmi, F., & Virto, L. R. (2010). The determinants and impact of telecommunications reforms in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics, 93(2), 275–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gasmi, F., Ivaldi, M., & Recuero Virto, L. (2009). An empirical analysis of cellular demand in South Africa. In TSE Working Papers 09-091. School of Economics (TSE). https://www.tsefr.eu/sites/default/files/medias/doc/wp/dev/wp_dev_91_2009.pdf

  • Gilster, P., & Glister, P. (1997). Digital literacy (p. 1). New York: Wiley Computer Pub.

  • Gladkova, A., Vartanova, E., & Ragnedda, M. (2020). Digital divide and digital capital in multiethnic Russian society. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 15(2), 126–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaeser, E. L., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., & Shleifer, A. (2004). Do institutions cause growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 9, 271–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global System for Mobile Communications (GSMA) (2014). Arbitrary radio frequency exposure limits: Impact on 4G network deployment. Case studies: Brussels, Italy, Lithuania, Paris and Poland. London: GSMA publications.

  • Global System for Mobile Communications (GSMA) (2022). Network and device limits. Public policy. (https://www.gsma.com/publicpolicy/emf-and-health/emf-policy). Accessed 26 Sept 2022.

  • Goodhue, D. L., Lewis, W., & Thompson, R. (2012). Comparing PLS to regression and LISREL: A response to Marcoulides, Chin, and Saunders. MIS Quarterly, 36(3), 703–716.

  • Greene, W. H. (2012). Econometric analysis (7th ed.). Pearson education. ISBN 978-0-273-75356-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunkel, D. J. (2003). Second thoughts: Toward a critique of the digital divide. New Media & Society, 5(4), 499–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagerman, R. L., & Zmijewski, M. E. (1979). Some economic determinants of accounting policy choice. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 1(2), 141–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harfouche, A. L., Jacobson, D. A., Kainer, D., Romero, J. C., Harfouche, A. H., Mugnozza, G. S., … & Altman, A. (2019). Accelerating climate resilient plant breeding by applying next-generation artificial intelligence. Trends in Biotechnology, 37(11), 1217–1235.

  • Harfouche, A., Quinio, B., Saba, M., & Saba, P. B. (2023). The Recursive Theory of Knowledge Augmentation: Integrating human intuition and knowledge in Artificial Intelligence to augment organizational knowledge. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(1), 55–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heeks, R. (2020a). ICT4D 3.0? Part 1—The components of an emerging “digital-for-development” paradigm. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 86(3), e12124.

  • Heeks, R. (2020b). ICT4D 3.0? Part 2—The patterns of an emerging “digital-for-development” paradigm. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 86(3), e12123.

  • Henriksen, H. Z., Thapa, D., & Elbanna, A. (2021). Sustainable development goals in IS research. Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems, 33(2), 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertel, G., Meeßen, S. M., Riehle, D. M., Thielsch, M. T., Nohe, C., & Becker, J. (2019). Directed forgetting in organisations: The positive effects of decision support systems on mental resources and well-being. Ergonomics, 62(5), 597–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh, J. P. A., Rai, A., & Keil, M. (2011). Addressing digital inequality for the socioeconomically disadvantaged through government initiatives: Forms of capital that affect ICT utilization. Information Systems Research, 22(2), 233–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, W. L., Akash, K., Reid, T., & Jain, N. (2018). Computational modeling of the dynamics of human trust during human–machine interactions. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems, 49(6), 485–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutter, H. P., Moshammer, H., Wallner, P., & Kundi, M. (2004). Public perception of risk concerning celltowers and mobile phones. Sozial-Und Präventivmedizin, 49, 62–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). (2020). Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health Physics, 118(5), 483–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). (1998). Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). Health Physics, 74(4), 494–522.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Telecommunications Union (ITU). (2018). The impact of RF-EMF exposure limits stricter than the ICNIRP or IEEE guidelines on 4G and 5G mobile network deployment. ITU-T K-series Recommendations - Supplement 14. International Telecommunication Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Telecommunications Union (ITU). (2019). 5G technology and human exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields. ITU-T K-series Recommendations - Supplement 9. International Telecommunication Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Telecommunications Union (ITU). (2021). ITU regional assessment for Europe on EMF exposure limits and risk communication challenges. Executive report. International Telecommunication Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanyna, M., & Shah, A. (2012). How close is your government to its people? Worldwide indicators on localization and decentralization. World bank policy research paper 6138.

  • Janson, M. A. (1991). Linear regression and information systems: An exploratory study. Information & Management, 21(2), 61–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jayaraju, N., Kumar, M. P., Sreenivasulu, G., Prasad, T. L., Lakshmanna, B., Nagalaksmi, K., & Madakka, M. (2023). Mobile phone and base stations radiation and its effects on human health and environment: A review. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship, 2(2), 100031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, K. Y., Reichert, F., Cagasan, L. P., Jr., de La Torre, J., & Law, N. (2020). Measuring digital literacy across three age cohorts: Exploring test dimensionality and performance differences. Computers & Education, 157, 103968.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M., Albizri, A., & Harfouche, A. (2023). Responsible artificial intelligence in healthcare: Predicting and preventing insurance claim denials for economic and social wellbeing. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(6), 2179–2195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones-Kavalier, B. R., & Flannigan, S. L. (2008). Connecting the digital dots: Literacy of the 21st century. Teacher librarian-seattle, 35(3), 13.

  • Jose, A., Philip, M., Prasanna, L. T., & Manjula, M. (2020). Comparison of probit and logistic regression models in the analysis of dichotomous outcomes. Current Research in Biostatistics, 10(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junaedi, A. T., Renaldo, N., Yovita, I., Veronica, K., & Sudarno, S. (2023). Digital Culture as a Moderating Factor in Increasing Digital Literacy. Reflection: Education and Pedagogical Insights, 1(3), 116–127.

  • Kajee, L., & Balfour, R. (2011). Students’ access to digital literacy at a South African university: Privilege and marginalisation. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, 29(2), 187–196.

  • Kazaure, J. S., & Matthew, U. O. (2021). Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) and Human Health: A Study on the Health Effect of EMR from GSM Base Stations in North-Western Nigeria. American Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 5(1), 14–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khene, C., & Masiero, S. (2022). From research to action: The practice of decolonizing ICT4D. Information Technology for Development, 28(3), 443–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., & Lee, W. (2013). Meanings of criteria and norms: Analyses and comparisons of ICT literacy competencies of middle school students. Computers & Education, 64, 81–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koh, T. H., Choi, J. W., Seo, M., Choi, H. D., & Kim, K. (2020). Factors affecting risk perception of electromagnetic waves from 5G network base stations. Bioelectromagnetics, 41(7), 491–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, B., Krishnan, S., & Sebastian, M. P. (2023). Examining the relationship between national cybersecurity commitment, culture, and digital payment usage: An institutional trust theory perspective. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(5), 1713–1741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lameijer, C. S., Mueller, B., & Hage, E. (2017). Towards rethinking the digital divide–recognizing shades of grey in older adults’ digital inclusion.

  • Leal Filho, W., Azeiteiro, U., Alves, F., Pace, P., Mifsud, M., Brandli, L., … & Disterheft, A. (2018). Reinvigorating the sustainable development research agenda: The role of the sustainable development goals (SDG). International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 25(2), 131–142.

  • Lee, A. S. (2001). What are the best MIS programs in US business schools? MIS Quarterly, 25(3), III.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewicki, F. (2020). ITU-T standardization work on EMF. In 10th international spectrum congress national spectrum agency (ANE) of Colombia, 9th November 2020. https://www.itu.int/ITU-T/recommendations/rec.aspx?id=14571&lang=en

  • Lippert, S. K. (2007). Investigating postadoption utilization: An examination into the role of interorganizational and technology trust. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 54(3), 468–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J. (2021). Bridging digital divide amidst educational change for socially inclusive learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. SAGE Open, 11(4), 21582440211060810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lythreatis, S., Singh, S. K., & El-Kassar, A. N. (2022). The digital divide: A review and future research agenda. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 175, 121359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A., & Grudziecki, J. (2006). DigEuLit: Concepts and tools for digital literacy development. Innovation in Teaching and Learning in Information and Computer Sciences, 5(4), 249–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masiero, S., & Arvidsson, V. (2021). Degenerative outcomes of digital identity platforms for development. Information Systems Journal, 31(6), 903–928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazar, H. (2009). An analysis of regulatory frameworks for wireless communications, societal concerns and risk: the case of radio frequency (RF) allocation and licensing. Universal-Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D. (1972). Conditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behavior. In Frontiers in Econometrics (Vol. 1974, pp. 105–142). Academic Press.

  • Mishra, K. E., Wilder, K., & Mishra, A. K. (2017). Digital literacy in the marketing curriculum: Are female college students prepared for digital jobs?. Industry and Higher Education, 31(3), 204–211.

  • Moussaoui, M., Bertin, E., & Crespi, N. (2023). Divide and Conquer: A Business Model Agenda for Beyond-5G and 6G. IEEE Communications Magazine, 61(7), 82–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niehaves, B., & Plattfaut, R. (2014). Internet adoption by the elderly: Employing IS technology acceptance theories for understanding the age-related digital divide. European Journal of Information Systems, 23, 708–726.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikou, S., De Reuver, M., & Mahboob Kanafi, M. (2022). Workplace literacy skills—how information and digital literacy affect adoption of digital technology. Journal of Documentation, 78(7), 371–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noreen, E. (1988). An empirical comparison of probit and OLS regression hypothesis tests. Journal of Accounting Research, 26(1), 119–133.

  • Novakovich, J. (2016). Fostering critical thinking and reflection through blog‐mediated peer feedback. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(1), 16–30.

  • Onitsuka, K. (2019). How social media can foster social innovation in disadvantaged rural communities. Sustainability, 11(9), 2697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pappas, I. O., Mikalef, P., Dwivedi, Y. K., Jaccheri, L., & Krogstie, J. (2023). Responsible digital transformation for a sustainable society. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(3), 945–953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H., Kim, H. S., & Park, H. W. (2021). A scientometric study of digital literacy, ICT literacy, information literacy, and media literacy. Journal of Data and Information Science, 6(2), 116–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pick, J. B., & Azari, R. (2011). A global model of technological utilization based on governmental, business-investment, social, and economic factors. Journal of Management Information Systems, 28(1), 49–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilgrim, J., & Martinez, E. E. (2013). Defining Literacy in the 21st Century: A guide to Terminology and Skills. Texas Journal of Literacy Education, 1(1), 60–69.

  • Pizzi, S., Caputo, A., Corvino, A., & Venturelli, A. (2020). Management research and the UN sustainable development goals (SDGs): A bibliometric investigation and systematic review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 276, 124033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pradhan, R. P., Arvin, M. B., Nair, M., Hall, J. H., & Bennett, S. E. (2022). Institutional development in an information-driven economy: Can ICTs enhance economic growth for low-and lower middle-income countries? Information Technology for Development, 28(3), 468–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • PWC. (2013). Mobile network cost study. Analysis of cost drivers related to the construction, operation and maintenance of mobile networks. Report - Summary for publication. PricewaterhouseCoopers AG.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quaicoe, J. S., & Pata, K. (2020). Teachers’ digital literacy and digital activity as digital divide components among basic schools in Ghana. Education and Information Technologies, 25(5), 4077–4095.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Racherla, P., & Mandviwalla, M. (2013). Moving from access to use of the information infrastructure: A multilevel sociotechnical framework. Information Systems Research, 24(3), 709–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radovanović, D., Holst, C., Belur, S. B., Srivastava, R., Houngbonon, G. V., Le Quentrec, E., … & Noll, J. (2020). Digital literacy key performance indicators for sustainable development. Social Inclusion, 8(2), 151–167.

  • Ramirez-Vazquez, R., Gonzalez-Rubio, J., Arribas, E., & Najera, A. (2019). Characterisation of personal exposure to environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in Albacete (Spain) and assessment of risk perception. Environmental Research, 172, 109–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez, J. (2021). Governance in energy democracy for Sustainable Development Goals: Challenges and opportunities for partnerships at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Journal of International Business Policy, 4(1), 119–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, P., Sharma, B., & Chaudhary, K. (2020). Digital literacy: A review of literature. International Journal of Technoethics (IJT), 11(2), 65–94.

  • Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital rehabilitation: A model of reentry into the digital age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273–1290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinekso, A. B., Rodliyah, R. S., & Pertiwi, I. (2021). Digital literacy practices in tertiary education: A case of EFL postgraduate students. Studies in English Language and Education, 8(2), 622–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosabal, O. M., López, O. L. A., Alves, H., & Latva-Aho, M. (2023). Sustainable RF Wireless Energy Transfer for Massive IoT: Enablers and Challenges. IEEE Access, 11, 133979–133992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, W. M. (2014). Activity Theory. In T. Teo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, C. L. (2018). 5 G wireless telecommunications expansion: Public health and environmental implications. Environmental Research, 165, 484–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saba, P., Meissonier, R., & Harfouche, A. (2024). Different IT projects, but the same conflicts. action research during IT deployment. Information Systems Frontiers, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-023-10467-6

  • Saba, P. B., & Meissonier, R. (2020). Fighting fire with fire: Action research on the inoculation technique to limit the resistances related to an IT project. Systèmes d’Information et Management (French Journal of Management Information Systems), 25(3), 87–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saba, M., Bou Saba, P., & Harfouche, A. (2018). Hidden facets of IT projects are revealed only after deployment: The case of French agricultural cooperatives. Information Technology & People, 31(1), 239–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, W. R. (2017). Institutional theory: Onward and upward. The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism, 900, 853–871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seo, M. S., Choi, J. W., Kim, K. H., & Choi, H. D. (2020). The relationship between risk perception of cell phones and objective knowledge of EMF in Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegrist, M., Earle, T. C., Gutscher, H., & Keller, C. (2005). Perception of mobile phone and base station risks. Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 25(5), 1253–1264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smidt, H. J., & Jokonya, O. (2022). Factors affecting digital technology adoption by small-scale farmers in agriculture value chains (AVCs) in South Africa. Information Technology for Development, 28(3), 558–584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, M., & Rasp, J. (1991). Tradeoffs in the choice between logit and OLS for accounting choice studies. Accounting Review, 66(1), 170–187.

  • Talukdar, D., & Gauri, D. K. (2011). Home Internet access and usage in the USA: Trends in the socio-economic digital divide. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 28(1), 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tjoa, A. M., & Tjoa, S. (2016). The role of ICT to achieve the UN sustainable development goals (SDG). In F. J. Mata & A. Pont (Eds.), ICT for promoting human development and protecting the environment. 6th IFIP world information technology forum, WITFOR 2016, San José, Costa Rica, September 12-14, 2016, Proceedings (pp. 3–13). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44447-5_1

  • Tsvetkova, M., Ushatikova, I., Antonova, N., Salimova, S., & Degtyarevskaya, T. (2021). The Use of Social Media for the Development of Digital Literacy of Students: From Adequate Use to Cognition Tools. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 16(2), 65–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turel, O., & Gefen, D. (2013). The dual role of trust in system use. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 54(1), 2–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dijk, J. A. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics, 34(4–5), 221–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vassilakopoulou, P., & Hustad, E. (2023). Bridging digital divides: A literature review and research agenda for information systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(3), 955–969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatesh, V., & Sykes, T. A. (2013). Digital divide initiative success in developing countries: A longitudinal field study in a village in India. Information Systems Research, 24(2), 239–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voigt, S., & Blume, L. (2012). The economic effects of federalism and decentralization—a cross-country assessment. Public Choice, 151, 229–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wali, S. Q., Sali, A., Allami, J. K., & Osman, A. F. (2022). RF-EMF exposure measurement for 5G over mm-wave base station with MIMO antenna. IEEE Access, 10, 9048–9058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, K. K., Teo, H. H., Chan, H. C., & Tan, B. C. (2011). Conceptualizing and testing a social cognitive model of the digital divide. Information Systems Research, 22(1), 170–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiedemann, P. M., & Schütz, H. (2005). The precautionary principle and risk perception: Experimental studies in the EMF area. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(4), 402–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wooldridge, J. (2012). Introductory econometrics: A modern approach. South-Western Cengage Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Guo, S., Huang, H., Liu, W., & Xiang, Y. (2018). Information and communications technologies for sustainable development goals: State-of-the-art, needs and perspectives. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(3), 2389–2406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, M., Jiang, J., Kiang, M., & Yuan, F. (2022). Re-examining the impact of multidimensional trust on patients’ online medical consultation service continuance decision. Information Systems Frontiers, 24(3), 983–1007.

  • Zhang, D., Mohsin, M., Rasheed, A. K., Chang, Y., & Taghizadeh-Hesary, F. (2021). Public spending and green economic growth in BRI region: Mediating role of green finance. Energy Policy, 153, 112256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, F., Collier, A., & Deng, H. (2014). A multidimensional and integrative approach to study global digital divide and e-government development. Information Technology & People, 27(1), 38–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the Investments for the Future (Investissements d'Avenir) program (grant ANR-17-EURE-0010). Their generous funding allowed us to conduct and complete our study. The views expressed are only those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the institutions with which they are affiliated.

Funding

We acknowledge funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR) under the Investments for the Future (Investissements d'Avenir) program (grant ANR-17-EURE-0010).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Toulouse School of Economics, Université Toulouse Capitole, Toulouse, France

    Farid Gasmi

  2. The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA

    Paul Noumba Um

  3. Léonard de Vinci Pôle Universitaire, Research Center, 92916, Paris La Défense, France, France

    Laura Recuero Virto & Peter Saba

Authors
  1. Farid Gasmi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Noumba Um
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laura Recuero Virto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter Saba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All four authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: Study conception and design: Authors A, B, C, D. Literature review and theoretical design: Authors A, B, C, D. Data collection: Authors A, B, and C. Analysis and interpretation of results: Authors A, B, C, and D. Draft manuscript preparation: Authors A, B, C, and D. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter Saba.

Ethics declarations

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendices

Appendices

1.1 Data description, sources, and descriptive statistics

1.1.1 Sample of countries

The dataset constructed for this paper contains observations of a sample of 97 countries worldwide that apply the international mobile station exposure limits (ICNIRP, 1998 or ICNIRP, 2020) or the US national mobile network limits (FCC, 1996), and another sample of 27 countries worldwide that apply restrictive mobile station exposure limits, for which there is sufficient data on the determinants of interest (see Table 1 in the main text). Table 6 below lists the 124 countries selected for the paper according to the type of EMF legislation (standard exposure limits, restrictive exposure limits) and following the World Bank regional classification. These data are based on the authors’ elaborations building on ITU (2021) surveys, GSMA (2022), and Chiaraviglio et al. (2022) datasets. Table 7 below lists the 59 countries which have 5G amongst those countries in the whole dataset in Table 6. Within this 5G dataset, there were 45 countries with standard exposure limits and 14 countries with restrictive exposure limits.

Tables 6 and 7

Table 6 The dataset for the econometric analysis
Full size table
Table 7 The countries with 5G technology
Full size table

Data content and sources

For the proxies of the determinants of EMF legislation, data were collected according to the main hypothesis considered in this paper, namely, digital literacy (see Table 1 in the main text), and some control variables regrouped under the label others (controls) and some instruments were added. Table 8 below gives the data content and the sources.

Table 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

Table 8 Data content and sources
Full size table

Summary statistics

Tables

Table 9 Summary statistics
Full size table
Table 10 Correlations between EMF legislation and explanatory variables+
Full size table
Table 11 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Digital skills gap index+
Full size table
Table 12 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Digital skills institutions+
Full size table
Table 13 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Digital responsiveness+
Full size table
Table 14 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Government support+
Full size table
Table 15 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Supply, demand, & competitiveness+
Full size table
Table 16 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Data ethnics & integrity+
Full size table
Table 17 OLS and Probit regression parameter estimates: Research intensity+
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gasmi, F., Um, P.N., Virto, L.R. et al. Digital Literacy, Sustainable Development and Radiation Regulation: Policy and Information Systems Implications. Inf Syst Front (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-024-10488-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-024-10488-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation